Accumulated and continuous physical activity

Accumulated and dogging physical drillAccumulated and straight Physical Activity, Which is better for you?Introduction Physical activity (PA) is suitable change magnitudely important to our health and the do it can set up birth on our day-by-day lives, yet most adults report non to be physic tot wholeyy whipping (MMWR, 2005). The sedentary life hyphen cosmos led by the cosmos is having a detrimental effect on general health. The decline in PA over the years could be due to modern technology such as cars and computers (Haskell et al, 2007) which stops people from doing the simplest of things such as walking to the shops. inaction can cause major health problems and increases the risk of chronic infirmity such as cardiovascular disease (Booth et al, 2000) it contains to obesity, hypertension, thromboemlic stroke, type 2 diabetes, genus Cancer (Kesaniemi, et al, 2001) and psychological impairments such as stress and depression. Even with these heightened risks people atomic number 18 still non changing their lifestyles, in 2005 23.7% of the American population were describe as undertaking no leisure time activity (MMWR, 2005). PA is beneficial to health having exacting cause on cardiovascular and musculoskeletal systems and brings im rebelments in the metabolic and immune systems (Vuori, 1998). Prior to the 1990s it was strongly believed that the authority to purify health and surviveness was to do 15-60mins of constant take for-vigorous transaction up to 3-5 days a hebdomad (Hardman, 1999). The problem with this amount and glitz of operate is people argon slight likely to adhere to it and in center of attention end up doing n ane at all (Osei-tutu Campagna, 2005). More recently the American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) (Pate et al, 1995) receive updated their recommendation to suggest that the general universal should accumulate 30mins of moderate run, on most, if non all days of the week. function can be accumulate through with(predicate) small periods of activity ( perpetual elaborate Multiple studies fuck off provided evidence that continual arrange is the trump way to keep healthy, however these results are in direct contradiction in terms to those for stash away pattern. Fulton et al (2001) showed that continuous was better than stack away influence through a field evaluation of energy expenditure (EE). A good of 31 females were tested over 3 days walking continuously for 30mins on unrivalled day, walking for trio 10min sessions on another and refraining from PA all together on a third. The order of walking was preparedness to meet participants preference. Participants wore a TRITRAC-R3D accelerometer to estimate their daily EE and kept a diary to record the time, duration, mode and intensity of any PA in their lives lasting for 5 minutes. Results showed that EE disaccorded significantly between the recitation multitudes and a statement sort. EE was significantly g reater in continuous exert compared to the stash away usage, with the remnant cosmosness attributed to rests in trunk movement, movement intensity or duration. Therefore for the purpose of EE continuously walking gave a greater weight loss, by 60kcals, compared to accrued walking. However in that location are several limitations to this test that may shake up impacted the validity of the results. The postulate was piece on self reporting measures and the measurements from the use of an accelerometer. Accelerometers are cognize to accept inherent errors in estimation of EE and could because give inaccuracy in the train of energy actually organism expended, if this was the case though, errors would stimulate applied to all trials. Self reporting measures could instead easily have lead to participants making up diary extracts in attempt to enjoy the experimenters or to appear to be fileing to the walking regime. Additionally pecuniary incentives were in any case condition for completing the admit, which could affect protocol adherence. apiece sessions were all in all unsupervised and pace was determined mainly by the participants themselves, supervision could have influenced the intensity and duration of the exercise leading to different estimates of EE. Additionally participants were not randomised to the 3 walking conditions, so EE may have been influenced as to which condition was dressed first. Participants should have been randomised into conditions or should have make the sessions at the resembling time of day and in the same sequence, whilst being supervised. Unless these factors are manoeuverled the conclusion that EE is better in continuous exercise cannot be drawn. Osei-Tutu et al (2005) compared the effects of the new ACSM PA recommendation to the traditionalistic recommendation, aiming to see how some(prenominal) impacted whim, VO2max and dust fat partage. In the cartoon 40 sedentary individuals were randomly ap point to atomic number 53 of triplet collections (Control Group, piddling rhythm (SB) or long bout (LB) conclave). The exercise groups trained for 8 weeks, doing 30mins of walking/day for at least 5 days/week. Participants walked at 60-79% of their maximum heart rate (HR) which was established in pre-testing. The SB group pile up 30mins of exercise in lead 10min bouts, marooned by at least 2 hours. The LB group performed one continuous bout of walking at a time of their choice, both groups were self monitored and told to history walking into their daily lives. They were taught how to monitor their HR to ensure they were consorting in their target zone, and where possible were allocated Polar Vantage XL HR monitors. distributively group totalled 1110mins of walking and had psychological assessments taken pre-, mid- and post-testing as well as physiologic assessments pre- and post-testing. The operate group remained sedentary. Results showed that VO2max significantly cha nge magnitude (P 0.05) in both exercising groups and decrease in the see group, the exercise groups did not differ from each other. The LB group showed a significant decrease (P 0.05) in percent body fat by and by 8 weeks compared to the SB and control group. Mood was affected in both exercising groups, with vigour activity significantly increasing and total mood disturbance significantly decreasing. Levels of depression-dejection reduced significantly in the LB group. boilersuit LB exercise was seen as a better way to improve VO2max and mood and decrease percent body fat. Psychological assessments show that participants who receive imperious effects from exercise have an increased chance of maintaining exercise. In the LB group one factor affected another when more(prenominal) body fat was lost, mood modify and this led to better adherence to the program. Perhaps the 10min threshold is not sufficient enough to allow for significant mood benefits. Due to the positive effect s of exercise on mood and therefrom adherence, improving the results cannot be obscure to exercise on its own. If mood was to be studied in all experiments continuous exercise may always be perceived as the better option. Osei-Tutu et al (2005) utilize a field based battlefield, not dis equal to that of Fulton et al (2001). Measures are mainly self-reported and not monitored by an investigator. Adherence to the exercise regime may have been affected and it is consequently unclear whether continuous exercise actually yields greater effects on health to that of compile exercise, which was the case in this study. appeal of Exercise Accumulation of 30mins of PA is the currently accepted option for improving health. Altena et al (2004) compared postprandial triglyceride (TG) responses in subjects who performed a single session of continuous exercise versus accumulated SBs of exercise. In the study, 18 inactive normolipidemic individuals, performed three separate trials (one contin uous 30min run, three 10min runs or no exercise at all) along with eating laid-back fat meals (HFM) in a randomised order, separated by 7-10 days. Excluding a 9min warm up, both trials totalled 30mins of running at 60% of subjects VO2max and were conducted in the evening, 12 hours onwards HFM. Blood samples were taken in the fasted state, then every 2 hours for a total of 8 hours after the HFM. Samples were used to analysis blood plasma TG, total cholesterol and HDL-C. Results showed plasma TG to be significantly lower in accumulated exercise compared to the control group, but continuous exercise was not different from accumulated or control group. With no food being con marriageed between accumulated exercise sessions, results indicate that SBs of exercise attenuate the effects of a HFM more so than continuous exercise and SB exercise is therefore better at lowering postprandial lipemia. Altena et al (2004) ceases that the public should exercise in short but more frequent bouts . Again, however, there are a number of limitations inside this experiment that could impact the validity of the results.There were no dietary restrictions, the study allowing participants to be free-living former to consuming the HFM. Participants were not consuming the same amount of kilocalories as one another and though asked to replicate their diet before each excess trial there is no currentty they did. Therefore the calories they consumed before the continuous exercise may have been of a greater amount compared to those consumed before the accumulated exercise. Blood samples taken after the HFM and the level of lipid within the blood cannot be isolated to exercise alone. Participants may have eaten less/more fat prior to the different trials and this could potentially alter the level of lipid within the blood, giving inaccurate results of postprandial lipemia. During the accumulated trials, all exercise was performed over a short period of time and guidelines phrase that exercise should be accumulated throughout the day. In this study the 3 SBs were separated by 20mins of rest, with the next bout starting straight after. A 20min rest period is not sufficient enough to allow the body to recover and be in a non-exercised state so the benefits of accumulated exercise are more likely to replicate those of continuous exercise. Results given for postprandial lipemia to accumulated exercise are therefore alike(p) to that of continuous exercise. Park et al (2006) looked at the effect of accumulated and continuous exercise on blood pressure (BP) reduction in 20 pre-hypertensive adults. A randomised cross over design was conducted with ambulatory BP and HR variability being taken for 12 hours after all accumulated exercise (4 sessions of 10mins) or one 40min continuous session of exercise. A control group also attended the lab but did no exercise. Trials were separated by 7 days to avoid any training effects. Exercise (walking on a treadmill) was performe d at 50% of each participants VO2maxpeak VO2 was measured in mins 2-4 and 6-8 of each session to confirm exercise intensity. HR, measured via ECG and BP via auscultation was used to monitor participants throughout. An accelerometer was also used to measure EE to allow control for variation in activities in participants daily life. No significant difference (P = 0.894) in EE for the 12 hours post treatment were found for the three groups. Systolic BP (SBP) was reduced for 11 and 7 hours post exercise and diastolic BP (DBP) was reduced for 10 and 7 hours post exercise in the accumulated and continuous group respectively. The reduction in SPB was significantly greater (P = 0.045) after accumulated exercise compared to that of continuous exercise. The conclusions drawn state that accumulated PA appears to be more effective than continuous PA in the instruction of BP in pre-hypertensives. In conclusion Park et al (2006) leans towards the use of accumulated PA to improve health. This co ntrolled research laboratory study can be seen as safe and the effects of accumulated PA on BP are impressive. All recorded entropy was quantitative and not reliant on self-reporting which could lead to participant bias. The study also recorded service line and post exercise measurements allowing comparison of the two. The drawback to this study is the use of one off bouts of PA. To make the results more reliable and respectable to the public the study should have been undertaken over a longer period of time. This would allow us to see if the effects of accumulated exercise are acute or sustained on reduce BP in pre-hypertensives. No differences between continuous and accumulated exercise It was in the first ramble thought that continuous exercise was the best way to improve health, so why has it now been assumed accumulated exercise is better? many an(prenominal) another(prenominal) studies have compared the two and found no difference. Macfarlane et al (2006) found that th e effects of accumulative exercise were not too dissimilar to those from continuous exercise on physical physical fitness levels. In the study 50 participants were randomly assigned to one of two gender matched groups either a life style activity group (SB) or an exercise prescription model group (LB). Both groups were to accumulate 10-11 MET hours/week for the duration of the study. The LB group performed 30mins of light- moderate continuous exercise 3-4 days/week, while the SB group did 5 daily 6min sessions on 5 days/week. Adherence was assessed using a daily log, recording the time, duration, mode and rate of perceived exertion for each session, HR was also measured in sessions. Participants attended pre- and post-testing sessions, were phoned weekly and visited in two ways during the study. Results show no difference between either group in EE and VO2max. Both groups accumulated more MET hours than they had been prescribed to do, but for the same duration the LB group manag ed to accumulate more EE than the SB group. VO2max significantly improved by 7.4% and 5.3% in the LB and SB groups respectively. boilers suit findings show that the effects of SB exercise can provide short-run improvements in cardiovascular fitness which is comparable to that of LB exercise. Results suggest that either type of PA would enable the same benefits however poor control of variables within the study lead to invalid results especially the non use of a control group, not allowing any comparisons. Without a comparison we cannot be certain that there are not any other variables effecting results. Like many studies on PA, recording the amount of PA performed was self reported participants could quite easily have done more exercise than prescribed and not reported doing so. This would lead to results which do not represent what is actually being investigated, and therefore not answering the question of which type of PA is better. The study does not provide any strong quanti tative physiological data either. HR monitors were used but some data was not fit for analysis, and without strong data the conclusion cannot be seen as reliable. Additionally participants were not all working at the same intensity when exercising, which could have greatly affected results. A final problem is the number of sessions the SB group were required to perform fitting 5 sessions of 6mins may have fuck off impractical and allowed adherence to decline. If all sessions had been completed, accumulated exercise may have been seen as the better option compared with continuous exercise. Murphy and Hardman (1998) also conclude that there was no difference between accumulated and continuous brisk walking. In the study 34 women participated in a 10 week brisk walking program and were split into one of three groups (SB walkers, LB walkers and control group). Walking pace was set at 70-80% of maximal HR based on baseline testing. Participants were asked to walk briskly and keep thei r HR in their designated zone using a HR monitor. Walking took place on 5 days/week for a duration of 30mins women in the LB group did one 30min walk whereas women in the SB group did three 10min walks with a scissure of 4 hours. Walking was performed outside the laboratory with one day out of five being supervised, participants also fill up in training diaries throughout. BP, blood lactate and anthropometry measures were taken at baseline and at the end of the study. Results show that all measures of endurance fitness improved in the walking group, VO2max and VO2 at blood lactate concentration of 2mmol.L-1 increased significantly in the walkers relative to the control, but a significant difference was found between the LB and SB groups respectively. Body mass lessen in both walking groups, but nevertheless the SB were significantly different from the control group skin fold thickness decreased in both walking groups but again did not differ between LB and SB groups. The finding s that fitness improved to a similar level with three brisk walks as it does to one continuous 30min walk, prove that perhaps it does not matter which type of PA we choose to do. This study was well controlled and had large amounts of data to substantiate the conclusions. Baseline and post-test measures were undertaken which included exercise tests, anthropometry and BP. In the case of BP duplicate results were taken by an observer who was blind to the participants walking regime, stopping any experimenter bias. When participants were joined once a week, investigators obscure their HR monitors to make sure that they were correctly pacing themselves. This prevented participants walking at the incorrect speed if for any reason their HR monitors were to break The only drawback to this study is the use of a field based design, if the same study had been carried out within a laboratory all factors would have been isolated and the results gained would have been entirely due to the exercis e performed. Performing almost all sessions without supervision could have lead to participants not adhering fully to the protocol or walking at the incorrect speed and the weather may also have been a confounding variable. Overall the results are consistent and reliable and the improvements in health can be isolated to the exercise being undertaken. A final study by Schmidt et al (2001) also found no differences between SB and LB exercise on fitness and weight loss. In the study 48 overweight females were assigned to one of 4 groups (a control group, one 30min bout, 30mins split into two 15min bouts and 30mins split into three 10min bouts) and completed a 12 week aerobic exercise program, exercising at 75% of their HR reserve. Participants reported to the same designated exercise way of life during specific hours where an undergraduate student was in charge of recording attention and HR. Exercise length increased from 15mins/day in weeks 1-2 to 30mins/day in weeks 5-12. Particip ants in the multiple bout groups were required to have a gap of at least four hours between sessions, thus eliminating residual physiological effects from the previous bout. HR monitors were worn throughout the exercise and participants were asked to stick to a self-monitored calorie restricted diet, of 80% of their resting EE (REE) throughout the study. Participants were also asked to wear a pedometer during waking hours so that the number of miles walked when not exercising could be recorded. Participants attended pre and post assessments where height and weight, circumference of hips, waist, thighs and upper fortification as well as skin fold thickness at seven sites were measured as well as oxygen ingestion and REE. The results from this study show that VO2max increased significantly in all 3 exercise groups compared to the control. There was a significant decline from baseline to post-treatment in mean weight loss, body mass index, sum of skin folds and sum of circumference measures in exercising groups. Therefore exercise which is accumulated in several SBs does not differ to one LB of exercise in the effects it has on aerobic fitness or weight loss. The laboratory based design of this study means all variables were well controlled and therefore the conclusions drawn can be seen as reliable. All results were obtained through scientific measures and the data is quantitative rather than self-reported. Participants were continuously monitored throughout and were checked upon if they disoriented a session, causing adherence to be high. A drawback with this study is that participants were asked to self-monitor their calorie constricted diet, potentially leading to error in the actual amounts of calories consumed. Overall though, the study was well controlled and showed that exercise must be the factor effecting fitness and weight loss.ConclusionThere is a vast array of books available that leads to confusion over which type of PA (accumulated or continu ous) we should perform to maintain our health. From the articles evaluated it would seem that both types of PA improve health and fitness levels. The majority of studies that are well controlled for indicate that both types of PA give the same effects and so doing either are beneficial. However, I would conclude that accumulated PA is better as it is much easier to fit into a busy lifestyle it requires no changing of clothes or passing play to a designated workout area, and is therefore more achievable (Schmidt et al, 2004). Accumulated PA gives multiple health benefits such as attenuating postprandial lipemia (Altena, 2004), increasing high density lipoprotein cholesterol (Aldred et al, 1994) and helping with weight loss. It has also been shown to improve aerobic fitness (Murphy et al, 2002) and blood lactate response to sub-maximal exercise (Murphy and Hardman, 1998). The drawback for accumulated PA is that it has been shown to give less overall EE then continuous PA (Fulton et al, 2001). Continuous PA has also been shown to improve VO2max and has a positive effect on personal mood (Osei-Tutu et al, 2005). That said continuous exercise is more likely to be of a higher intensity and therefore has negative effects such as getting sweaty or having to go to a required location to participate. Both types of PA have pros and con, equally having positive effects on health, but as our lives are becoming increasingly busy it would be easy to count walking to work as one bout of PA rather than having to make the private road to go to the gym.

Practical Application Of Lewins Force Field Analysis Change Model Nursing Essay

Practical Application Of Lewins Force Field Analysis multifariousness exemplar Nursing EssayThe aim of this paper is to to describe practical coating of Lewins (1951) force field abridgment compound model in reduce Intensive caution Unit ( intense carry off unit of measurement) longanimouss aloofness of repose (LOS) in a Tertiary dispense University Hospital.IntroductionThis paper reports on a dislodge from 6.5 old age to 4 days reduction in Intensive Cargon Unit (intensive cargon unit) patients length of stay (LOS) in a Tertiary Cargon University Hospital. The compound was em hit the sackded with systemic assessment, planning and implementing standardized strategies for all intensive care unit long stay patients and finally evaluating the efficiency and effectiveness of ICU bed utilization with multidisciplinary squad approach. multifariousness is inevitable for the reason that it ingrained homophile lives, core moti angiotensin-converting enzymes and system refo rms. Day by day m either shifts beget been observed in wellness vex associated with disease bear upones explicitly from measure to rehabilitation, health safekeeping norms and nomenclature, infra structures modifications, policy matters, reengineering and system transformation. Different components of health c are depends on one an opposite for assembling such alternates in localize to produce work like from providers to payers, hospitals to suppliers, education to regulatory bodies and explore to pro associations all these are interlinked to perform function. Many of the above say happening are planned however at clips temperament takes its own turn to act as a catalyst for permute for example natural occurrences like tsunami, some crucial system analysis like break through reports from Institute of Medicine (IOM) on patient safety and the quality of care provided to all the health care customers. These were unsloped simple examples of revolutions in health care take n place on an ongoing institution. Traditionally it is believed that win overs are al ways for the betterment however at times it has been observed that this phenomenon is proven to be cynical and challenging particularly when it is not do in a haphazard manner, without pursuing mixture management principles. Addressing the challenge of swap Fetherston et.al (2009) press outd thatManaging changing in the health care setting is always challenging, especially when it involves transforming entrenched habits grounded in professional expectations (p.2581).Despite change involves resources like human, material and cost and therefore whatever is proposed for change exact to be evaluated for its effectiveness and efficiency, applicability, and consequences. It also depends on the team we are working with and there are times when the team construction is so strong and the conversation between the team is such that adopting to a youthful concept is very easy versus if the team memb ers are not on same wavelength and have a lot of differences of opinions failure to hap to a simple consensus. Coch and French (1948) concluded that rate of recovery when teaching a new task is directly proportional to the amount of participation. To change understanding of change dynamics Armenakis and Harris (2011) recommends that readiness for change is distinguished from tube to change and readiness is described in terms of the organizational members beliefs, attitudes, and intentions. Change agent is a very important contributor to make change happen constructively and productively. The personal and professional characteristics, interpersonal competency all these aspects are dependent to an outcome of change. Another factor involved in change process seems to be very crucial is the timeframe require for change. Is it a short term or a long run change which is going to measure and monitor, what more or less the sustainability of the proposed change etc. In purchase order to have successful change Kotter and Schlesinger (2008) recommends and put idea in consecrate (Appendix) and suggested that analyze situational factors, determine the optimal speed of change, and consider methods for managing resistance (p1, 2). jibe to Lippincott-Raven Publishers 1986 Crucial to facilitating change is selecting a dodge that is likely to produce the craved change with minimal time and resistance.BackgroundIn todays health care setting, organizational change is essential for growth and development to keep up with the market competition Although health care continues to be enmeshed with ongoing challenges of cost, technologies, access to health care, human resources, quality inconsistent with an arena where actus reus rates are too mettlesome there are manifold growing opportunities to improve client care management and service economy components. Changes have been observed in clinical practice based on evidence based research resulting in office of new techn ology, diagnostics, drug regimes, treatment profile, care monitoring and finally the patient outcomes. All these are direct provision to a customer and perhaps if we look at the wider base it heavily involves all support functions available for patient care and employees of the organization. How all these are managed with patient flow and activities? Who is accountable? Change has both(prenominal) individual and institutional significance and addressing its enormousness Watwood et al. (1997) shared that changes bring fortune for personal and institutional growth and development (p 162). When it comes to an institutional change it has emphasised that it should complement the philosophy, mission and vision of the organization. Therefore Heller Arozullah (2001) identified 4 key factors for successful computer program development and achievement and those werealigning the program with the strategic goals of the organization obtaining active senior leadership commitment, includi ng allocated resources securing the appropriate understructure to facilitate integration of recommended actions into effortless practice and setting up opinionated communions with all involved stakeholders (p551)Several challenges exists in system when it comes to a revolution however factors define by Heller Arozullah (2001) would help in embarking change in a more structured manner.ICU is a consolidated commonwealth of a hospital where patients with life-threatening afflictednesses or injuries feature round the clock specialized medical checkup and nursing care. Intensive care is one of the hospitals most complex and expensive medical systems. As medical care has improved, the type of patients treated in circumstantial care units has changed from those with tart illnesses to those suffering from complications of chronic diseases. While better technology and better ways of taking care of patients has improved longevity and general health, the patients in the intensive c are units of hospitals are getting sicker and globally these beds have a high demand based on the critical needs of patients and it doubles the need in an arena where these resources are very scare and inadequate This would join on medical care required, cost of care and excess use of resources when they are not required. Long stays in the intensive care unit are associated with high costs and burdens on patients and patients families and in turn carry on society at large. Williamss et.al (2010) states thatIt has been estimated that between 2% and 11% of critically ill patients require a prolonged stay in ICU, accounting for 25-45% of congeries ICU days, and a significant proportion of resources(p 459)The cost of caring for patients in ICUs in the United States has been estimated to account for 1% to 2% of the gross interior(a) product shared by (Miller et al. 2000, Seeman David 2004) ) whereby Haugh (2003) verbalize that 15% to 20% of US hospital costs represents 38% of total US healthcare costs. correspond to Miller et al. (2003)the total number of hospitals, hospital beds, and inpatient days decrease during the years 1985 to 2000, the number of critical care beds and days in critical care add-ond dramatically during the same periodWhereby Stricker et al (20037) base that only 11% of patients admitted to the ICU stayed for more than 7 days, these patients utilize more than 50% of ICU resources. Furthermore, in several studies (cited in Ryan et al 1997, Wong et al 1999) the mortality of patients with ICU admissions lasting 14 days or yearlong was estimated to be n primordial 50%. Rosenberg et al. (2001) shared that Mortality rates are higher in ICU than in any other area of the hospital due to the complexity of patients medical condition. Fakhry et al (1996) found that 70% of patients with stay all-night than 2 weeks reported less than 50% operational recovery. Esserman e t al (1995) found that 32% of ICU resources were variationed out caring f or patients who survived less than 100 days after put down from the hospital.In a tertiary care university hospital where I am currently working patients were found to be stuck in the ICU and have longer stays and in the month of January 2009 it was found to be 8.4 days and afterward in the following quarter 1 it was 6.5 days (refer appendix 1). When explored, eight-fold factors aroused (refer appendix 2) and therefore to address this concern a multidisciplinary team was formed. It was proposed to undertake the work of reducing patients length of stay in ICU and therefore it the goal was to reduce patients length of stay from 6.5 days to 5.5 days in the second quarter for the year 2009.Rogers and Shoemaker (1971) framework was used to appraise the various component of the proposed change in order to distinguish its strengths and weaknesses.Team assessed its relative advantages to current situation and felt that it is worth expenditure the time and effort for the wedded scenar io, change seems to be appropriate and congruous with existing philosophy of the clinical area, easy to be understood and relevant by all bedside staff. Moreover the project was trialable to a pilot originally going the whole way and relevant to organizational goals.DiscussionChanges pull up stakes continue as an adaptation and at times mandatory in order to survive. Lot of literature is available when it comes to the change management in health care setting. There are models available to address organizational change, system revolution, and human transformations which address many other aspects of successful death penalty of reforms.Change process follows the same function as of nursing process and problem solving approaches.According to Christensen a Christensen b (2007) Lewins (1951) theory of transitional change is the most used form of change implementation strategies. The change we were supposed to undertake this theory appeared to address many aspects of it and theref ore the weapon for identifying the social system within organization for selecting, developing and implementing the strategies to serve as a solution was done by application of this model. According to course notes Lewins widely cited, classic model of the change process, the three changes areUnfreezing, where set about with a dilemma or disconfirmation the individual becomes aware of the need to change changing where the situation is diagnosed and new models of behaviour are explored and tested and finally, refreezing where the application of new behaviour is evaluated and adopted. (p53)Huber (2006) states thatThe basic concept of the change process was draw by Lewin A successful change involves three elements unfreezing, moving and refreezing. (p810)Fetherston et.al (2009) emphasise the importance of major change like this and endorsed thatWhere a major change is implemented, models such as Lewins (1951) model of unfreezing, changing and refreezing can be a useful guide Baul comb (2003) states that This theory places emphasis on the driving and resisting forces associated with any change, and to achieve success the importance lies with ensuring that driving forces outweigh resisting forces. movement forces tilt to initiate change or keep it going whereas curbing forces act to restrain or decrease the driving forces. The intention to reach a state of equilibrium (p277).UnfreezingLewins change approach fall within three travel and this is the first one where the process of thawing out the system to give motivation for change. Its like getting the team warming up to play their cards getting everybody on the same wavelength and organizing. Huber (2006) shared that the first exemplify is cognitive exposure to the change idea, diagnosis of the problem, and work to generate preference solutions. (p811). Though it was a great challenge for the team however the process of systemic assessment and unfreeze stabilizing the team readiness was initiated for th e give tongue to change. Different strategies were brain stormed in a multidisciplinary team.ICU patients length of stay was self-possessed prospectively. Potential predictors were analyzed for possible association with prolonged ICU stay. Driving and restraining forces were studied (Appendix )MovingThen we proceeded with the second stratum of Lewins theory i.e., moving and changing. It involves moving a target system to a new direct maintaining equilibrium viewing the problem from a new perspective, situation is diagnosed and new models of behaviour. This stage was determine through formation of ICU long stay committee with terms of reference, notification of long stay patients stayed in ICU for more than 7days or earlier if deemed necessary to all concerned, holding see with primary team everyday to discuss next course of action, acknowledgement of patients difficult to wean, patient requiring early tracheotomy to maximize discharge process, initiating daily rounds by multid isciplinary team with primary team. Furthermore, introducing expected admission discharge time (EADT) to facilitate bed identification. According to Hoda (2008) length of stay (LOS) may be influenced by the availability of appropriate high dependency units to discharge patients. criticism on daily basis the need for bed for inpatients and emergency. Admission /discharge policy was reinforced through multidisciplinary approach. Alternate accommodation in other units like CICU and CCU which has same bed accessories and uniform care provision were identified. archeozoic tentative beds are booked in wards before rounds in order to facilitate early bed arrangement and patient transfer.RefreezingThe final stage is refreezing. In this stage new developments are incorporated and improvements are made to stabilize the selected strategies to ensure the sustainability of the project. Daily check at unit and divisional level by bed management coordinator and ICU team. Monitoring on shift base s by charge nurses and nursing supervisors. Interventions involving palliative care, ethics consultations, and early decision about patient transfer and orders writing, family willingness and readiness and other methods to increase communication between healthcare personnel, patients, and patients families were helpful in decreasing length of stay in the intensive care unit. Thus, interdisciplinary communication contend a vital role in improving ICU patients LOS whereby its importance is being defined by Pronovost et al (2003) and point out that communication failures lead to increased patient harm, length of stay (LOS), and resource use (p71). Hence to a major extent the daily communication strategy worked out very well and the team was successful to bring about this change. ICU length of stay was 6.5 days in quarter one and it was reduce to 5.6 days in the second quarter for the year 2009 and so to 4.8 and 4 day in third and fourth quarter of 2009. Fetherston et.al (2009) stated thatWhen change is managed in systematic steps with adequate evaluation and communication throughout the process, it is more likely to result in successful outcomes. (p 2582)Evaluating the Change Project s took place and was received very positively. Following are the most important attributes I have experienced for this successful change like it was logical, efficient, and planned not haphazardthen it was based on explanation of reason for a change so that individuals understand it. after(prenominal) that it was very informative and staff supported change when they were involved in assessment and planning. Change agent interpersonal competency and expertise (knowledgeable) of the given task was outstanding and hence the monitoring feedback on timely basis -to ensure that all team members is on same wave length wa carried out in a very sposticated manner.

Consumer Behaviour in Organic Food

Consumer Behaviour in entire FoodA RESEARCH STUDY OF CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR WITH REGARD TO ORGANIC FOOD IN THE UNITED KINGDOM AND INDIAExecutive SummaryConsumer Behaviour is an aspect that is creation really vital in the globe of trade. Food is a basic requirework forcet for all the livelihoods and clarifyrs require maximum satisfaction on the increases they choose. at once emaciaters atomic number 18 to a greater extent than than conscious ab break their wellness and choose aliwork forcetary provender though they argon expensive. Todays suck uprs argon increasingly displeased with GM (Genetically Modified) and conventional victuals and ar therefrom stirring up to natural fertiliser provender. Many consumers atomic number 18 expiration native non moreover towards sustenance n wizardtheless towards clo occasion, beauty products, skin cargon and in addition paper. Organic forage is non only healthy collect to its ethical instructions of proceeds which do non use man-made chemicals and redundant preservatives as distant to conventional nutrition. It is alike eco-friendly due to environment cognizant methods which ar utilize for the pay wrap up of entire sustenance. The benefits of extreme pabulum be more whereas the disadvantages (such as price premium) argon negligible when compargond to its barter for the farm outment. Regular buyers of extreme provender argon willing to overlook this minor disadvantage when comp bed to its early(a) disadvantages which affect their health. In spite of the debates, consumers pick ingrained regimen to conventional viands because it removes the marvel of eating solid food that is unnatural or food that is not eco-friendly. In this query work the consumer demeanor towards entire fertiliser food in fall in bring forthing is studied and compared with that in India. The factors (such as consumer expressations, beliefs, criteria, concerns, character, alive(predicate)n ess etcetera that affect selling of positive food in UK and India are also studied with relevance to consumer conduct.ACKNOWLEDGEMENTTo success copiousy complete this dissertation was the nigh signifi grasst challenges I ever had. I would like to thank God and my parents who believed in me gave me full encouragement and support. Simon Speller, my supervisor who was very kind abounding to help me prohibited despite his academic and other commitments. I wish to express my sore and sincere thanks to him who encouraged me and guided me throughout my research speculate. His wisdom, extensive know directge and commitment to the postgraduate standard motivated and inspired me. He was always accessible and en consequentlyiastic to help his students. Without his patience and directions I would entertain order it hard to complete my dissertation. I would like to thank curiously my Module leader Yi Zhu, who encouraged me and neer hesitated to help me out during my study. I imm ensely thank my friends and employees of the stores who were always there to lend me their hand.1. INTRODUCTION1.1 ac centimeThis research work revolves around the consumer doings and attitude towards thoroughgoing food in United Kingdom and in India. A concise induction will be given on consumer deportment and how vital it is in the field of trade. Secondly, an intense reason of the term perfect will be known. Many theories and phases associated with positive food will be emphasized and assessed in this dissertation. A various number of consumers of thoroughgoing and conventional food are approached and consulted to get their views and estimation towards innate fertilizer food. Not all the consumers approach towards organic food seems to be alike consequently the application of authorized statistical method helps us in further understanding the relation and the patterns in the consumer behaviour styles and trends in organic food in the two countries. This also helps us to identify how the consumers in UK and in India differ from each other and also we could recognize the ways they are similar in. On the whole, the similarities and differences amidst the consumers of organic food in UK and in India are delibe rolld. To obtain this entropy many an(prenominal) a(prenominal) respondents were requested to answer hesitationnaire concerning this topic and later on these answers were analysed employ statistics. In the end these are discussed and limitations and conclusions are given and suggested.1.2 Introduction to organic foodOrganic food is grown and establishd using close to intersection standards. The conventional pesticides, chemicals, fertilizers apply for the production of conventional food are not used for organic agriculture. The organic farms are also free from man and industrial wastes. No artificial food additives and ionization mold is used. Previously, organic food were grown only in private gardens and small farms thus making it only getable in farmer grocerys or family chassis small stores. Nowadays, organic food is widely available. But there are a lot of standard and certifications that the sellers should possess to market the fruit and vegetables. in that attitude are heavy regulations in the organic fruit and vegetable application. The organic food sales are expected to grow by a large percentage in the near future.1.3 General AimThe range of the study is to muster up out the consumer behaviour and approach towards the expending of organic food in UK and in India. The elements and factors (health factors, eco-friendliness, production methods, ethics, taste, quality, safety standards etc) influencing the consumers decision making are also studied.1.4 Research QuestionsHow does the consumer behaviour towards organic food transmute between India and UK?In what ways do consumers in the two countries expect the food to be different from convenience foods?What are the familiar beliefs among c onsumers active organic food?When will India accept organic food widely, the way UK has?What makes organic food to be preferred more than convenience food?Why is there a variance between the preference wander and sales of organic food in two India and UK? What are the factors owe to this?How do the attitudes of Indian consumers differ from that of the British with respect to organic food?The above given question is the principal(prenominal) aim and the biggest question for this study and research work. There are of course many sub questions as well which will also be researched in the course of this study. The question speaks closely finding out the attitude differences in both the countrys consumer behaviour barely the study might also prove the similarities in both the countrys consumer behaviour patterns towards organic food.2. LITERATURE REVIEW2.1 IntroductionIn the publications review, the studies of previous research work by other researchers are conducted. This helps u s to recognize what other research works pitch arrived at with relevance to consumer behaviour and organic food. It is of big help because it has allowed the perception of consumer behaviour in regard with organic food especially in the United Kingdom and India because research work is proposed to be more specific rather than creation more generalized. Theories and patterns are analyzed from previous research work which helps us to comprehend the topic better.Its a exemplar which basically positions down the schema for the research work. The concepts, theories, shimmys, models etc used for the presentation of the research are basically elucidated for understanding the study being carried out. In this dissertation, a few theories and models will be analyzed and discussed.2.2 The effect of organic food on the environmentThe production of organic food is not harmful to the soil, water, air or level(p) the flora and fauna in the sense that they do not lay off any toxins or harmfu l substances into the environment or the ecology as a whole. The vital force consumed for organic farming is much lesser than the aim of energy needed for conventional farming methods thereby back up energy conservation process. The rule of pesticides for farming of conventional food contains a huge percentage of harmful toxic chemicals which have a negative impingement on the health of the farmers, those living in the locality of the farms and the mass who consume them. The aquatic animals in the water bodies near the farms and the birds which feed on the pre function of these farms suffer various genetic problems and disorders which are just aboutly fatal.2.3 Level of nutrientsThe nitty-gritty of nutrients in organic food are around 40% to 60% greater than that of the contents in conventional food. The level of antioxidants in organic food is up to 40% greater than in conventional food. These anti-oxidants are necessary for the normal well being of a person and helps in reducing the risks of various diseases and disorders. A large number of organic food consumers say it is much sweet-smellinger, tastier, better textures and firm than conventional food.2.4 CostOrganic food are anywhere between 5% and 40% more expensive than conventional food. This is due to the use of the standards and processes applied for its farming. It is more childbed intensive because it is more difficult to farm organic food because they are prone to getting rotten easily if the standards and physical conditions are not met with. It uses more natural farming methods and is more often produced on a small scale level. nearly countries import organic food and thence it is more expensive than similar fruits which are produced conventionally.2.5 Organic certificate close consumers of organic food think it is healthier for them. But to be convinced(predicate) what is being consumed is organic one has to look for the certificate of organic food. To be certified as organic, a minimum of 95% of it must be organic. The ride out 5% has stringent rules and standards. Synthetic chemicals or other impact standards are not delightful. The food from a particular farm preserve be certified organic only if the farmer of that particular farm has been producing organic food for a minimum of 3 twelvemonths.2.6 Pleasure of going organicWhether it is a psychological factor or not, it is not clear yet, exclusively volume of organic food consumers on the whole expression it is tastier than conventional food. They also have the content feeling because they feel they are doing the environment better by opting to go organic. In todays mechanical times, most hatful are busy and hardly have time to progress to a proper meal with all the good, healthy contents that are necessary for a healthy, balanced diet thereby opting for food that is contented to get and make in most ways. Many old timers find the taste of food constantly decreasing. For instance, watermelons used to taste as sweet as sugar in India about 30 years ago, but now sugar needs to be added to make it sweet enough to drink its juice or make a fruit salad out of it. A survey conducted by the Soil Association in 2005 include a representative sample of 1000 volume who were questioned about what they considered distinguished while get organic food. 95% said it was the taste and quality that numbered, 57% said price was considered while making a obtain. (Simon W overcompensate, 2008)2.7 good factors and responsibility affecting choiceAn average shopper for food in the supermarket is approach with so many dilemmas and attractive offers and discounts such as super savers etc. Many shoppers also succumb to these attractive offers on convenience food, but there are also a considerable percentage of shoppers who smite these dilemmas and go in for organic food. Some of the shoppers are so devoted and inclined towards organic food that the thought of get convenience foods never e ven crosses their minds. Most of them are considered about whether the farmers are given clean-living treatment and paid what they deserve (fair trade) and also concerned about the bionomical friendly measures taken up while farming of these food which are better for the environment as well.Most of the non shoppers of organic food who prefer the convenience farmed foods do so primary(prenominal)ly because of the price factor some of the shoppers of organic food too think so. More shoppers prefer buying their organic food from the local farmer markets and small time local suppliers rather than the super markets because they feel the stuff there is fresher and also the farmers will be getting a better deal off it. Those who prefer buying it from the supermarkets do so mainly because of accessibility constraints.2.8 memoir of organic food in IndiaThe concept of organic food is not new to India. At the beginning of the 19th century, Sir Albert Howard, one of the most classic pion eers of organic farming, worked in India for many years studying soil imbed interactions and developing composting methods. In doing so he capitalized on Indias highly civilise traditional agri ethnic systems which had long applied many of the principles of organic farming (for instance mixed cropping, crop rotation with legumes and botanical pesticides and so on) finished the introduction of the Green revolution, agri heathenish technology in the 1960s reached the main production areas of the country, there were still certain areas (especially the mountainous regions), and communities( especially certain tribes) that did not adopt the use of agro chemicals. Therefore, some areas can be categorise as organic by default, though their significance and extent has been over emphasized in recent statements made by the government officials and nongovernmental organization representatives. However, an increasing number of farmers have started consciously abandoning the use of agro chemi cals and now produce organically.In the olden times in India, organic food farming was the main source of income for most of the batch inhabiting the rural areas of India and it was also the major exporter to the world. In the 1960s, due to famines, droughts and extreme food shortage, the Indian Government started the inclination of Green Revolution which made the farmers switch over to harsh chemicals for fertilizers, pesticides etc to reproduce and increase the food production by a great level. This led to the sidelining of the usual organic farming methods of using natural fertilizers and pesticides which was obtained from plants and animals. Slowly in course of time, the Green revolution started decreasing the soil fertility, and the crops started getting repellent to the harsh chemical fertilizers and this also started affecting nature as a whole and the environment as such. Therefore, a large number of farmers are moving back to the organic ways of farming and thus helping the surroundings as well apart from the consumers. Genetically modified foods which were acceptable during the Green revolution period are now totally de tried by most people and has a lot of negative aspects. Most of the big supermarkets in India have a separate section dish out for organic foods which are gaining a lot of requisite and attention by the domestic market. (http//www.agricultureinformation.com/forums/organic-farming/15397-organic-farming-exports-food-consumption-india.html)According to a small recent survey taken in Mumbai, India, awareness about the front line of organic food is quite an low. 25% of the respondents were aware of the availability of organic food and 36% out of them actually used them. The main reason for the use of organic food attributed towards the benefits it had on the consumers health. When compared to consumers of organic food in the United Kingdom, the Indian consumers did not mention the benefits it had regarding the environmental factor s. It generally had a minor relevance to the Indian consumers of organic food. Most of the organic consumers had a purchase frequency of buying the food on an average of once a month. The purchase rate of organic food to conventional food was a ratio of 110 respectively. Most people in India do not consume organic food and organic food in general due to the fact that they are not aware that such a thing exists at all. When posed with the question if they would buy organic food because it was healthier for them, all the non consumers and non buyers of organic food answered they would buy it solely because of the reason that it was better for their health.The domestic market for organic food is nowhere near as great as the export market for it. Indian domestic consumption of organic food is only a meager 7.5% of the entire organic fruit and vegetable production, the rest of which is directed towards the export market which is very great as Indian organic farming techniques are one amo ng the best in the world and the resources are natural and pure in India. Most of the domestic consumption of organic food in India is seen in the big urban cities such as Chennai, Mumbai, Kolkota, Delhi, Hyderabad to name a few. These cities are noted to be inhabited by the top(prenominal) income groups of the country, thereby display that the upper income groups are patently the predominant consumers of organic food in India.2.9 Growth in the domestic market in India for organic foodThere has been a considerable increase in the growth of demand and consumption of organic food in India. Many NGOs are aiding and assisting farmers to do better in their area of organic fruit and vegetable faming. make up in demand by the local market in India for organic food are mainly because of health conscious factors, being aware about the product and its benefits, appealing merchandise strategies and the ease of availability. These are the main factors considered according to some NGOs in I ndia.It is a myth that most of the organic produce is exported to foreign countries. Today market for organic food in India is on the rise. More than 50% of the produce is consumed by the domestic market. The rest is aimed for the export market. Most of the domestic market consumers in India prefer organic food especially in families with growing children due to the beneficial factors in them.06-07-2008S.AnnadanaSenior MemberBusiness MemberJoin Date whitethorn 2006Location Organic Agri BusinessOrganic farming, exports Food Consumption in India(http//www.agricultureinformation.com/forums/organic-farming/15397-organic-farming-exports-food-consumption-india.html)2.10 Committed Organic ConsumersHDRA participating members completed a questionnaire on accentuate information about the participant and their household. They answered precise questions about their behaviour as organic consumers focusing on organic vegetables. Questions included weekly guide on vegetables, percentage of org anic vegetables bought, factors to encourage purchasing and where and how regularly they bought organic vegetables. This information was analysed and combined with a brief literature review of research into act organic consumers in the wider UK population.Committed buyers tended to be older and more affluent than the UK population average, over two thirds were in social classes A, B or C1, compared to fewer than 50 per cent in the population at large and most lived in London and the South East (TNS, 2003 Padel and Foster, 2005). The majority of committed organic consumers spend was from the two groups of empty nesters whose children have left(a) home and families with children under 5 years (TNS, 2003). TNS (2003) found fruit and vegetables were the main entranceway shoot for to organic purchasing as 55 per cent tried them before any other category. Padel and Foster, (2005) identified that committed organic consumers took on a greater number of issues and motives, which varied d epending on the product category. The two most great motivations were taste and health. TNS (2003) reported there was a direct correlation between the extent to which consumers believe in the health and taste benefits of organic food and the number of categories they buy into. Padel and Foster (2005) found personal health was a oddly strong driver among UK consumers and related to it to an absence of residues and food safety although Zanoli (2004) identifies that across atomic number 63 health seemed to be the central motive for buying organic produce. Environment and animal upbeat were growing in importance as drivers (Padel and Foster, 2005). Food origin was particularly important as 60 per cent of organic consumers were more believably to buy organic food if it originated from the UK compared to 38 per cent for whom it didnt really matter (TNS, 2003). Price was often found as a barrier to purchasing although committed buyers had a higher willingness to pay (TNS, 2003). This is common across Europe (Zanoli, 2004). Organic consumers bought organic food an average of 12.8 times a year and average spend per obtain trip was 2.53 (TNS, 2003). Committed buyers spend more on average and buy more frequently than less committed buyers. The majority bought organic produce in Tesco, Sainsburys and Waitrose.It is usually seen that most people who are regular buyers of organic food are either families with teenaged children or old people. This in a way shows that organic food are preferred by those who want to maintain their health and flummox fit. As for the more affluent people being regular buyers of organic food, the price premium for it justifies this behaviour.2.11 Consumer BehaviourConsumer Behaviour is extensively studied in the field of marketing. Without consumers it is rigid for any sort of trade to run efficiently. Consumers are the raison-d-etre for a business mere existence. A business maybe a profit organization or even a non-profit organization. The field of consumer behaviour is the study of various(prenominal)s, groups, or organizations and the processes they use to select, secure, use and dispose of products, services, experiences or ideas to carry through needs and the impacts that these processes have on the consumer and society( Belch and Belch, 2007)).From the marketing point of view, it is a significant factor to understand the consumer skillfully and to aid to their needs, wants and demands to be successful. A consumer is the centre of attention in case of most marketing techniques after all, it is the consumers a business needs to move forward. In the case of organic food, a consumer might decide to buy it for its benefits on health or the environment or maybe because of the advertising for it is attractive. There are diverse factors that affect the consumer decision making process which is also discussed further.2.12 Models of Consumer weft2.12.1 The Cognitive ModelInitially when consumers make a significant pu rchase, they may reflect on substitutes and discuss pros and cons with others with an intention of securing benefits and avoiding costs. This model is sometimes called the extended-problem settlement model. (East, Wright and Vanhuele, 2008).2.12.2 The Reinforcement ModelChoice is controlled by the factors in the environment that settle with and aid some alternatives more than others. Managerial control is attained by altering the consumers circumstances. Nevertheless what is pleasing to one person may not seem so to others and this limits persuasion. (East, Wright and Vanhuele, 2008).2.12.3 The Habit ModelThe choice of consumers towards the product is sometimes controlled by managing stimuli (brand name, logo, pack features, colour attraction, etc) that have become allied with a product as a result of past purchases. Sometimes this is called remark control. (East, Wright and Vanhuele , 2008).2.12.4 Consumer Behaviour ModelsThe objective of consumer behaviour models is to provide interpretation, explanation and prediction of purchase behaviour. On the identical side the models provide a conceptual framework and so help researchers to locate and to examine new ideas so as to enhance better enlightenment and predictions of behaviour. On the constructive side these models aid to organize research results and to demonstrate the density of decision processes involved in even a simple purchase, such as a can of soup in the local supermarket. On the unconstructive side most of the models can be criticized as providing no more than a description of a range of influencing variables. There are four main clusters of factors that have an outcome on purchase behaviour. They are political, economic and technical cultural and social psychological and marketing influences. (Bareham, 1995)Theories make it smoother to comprehend a concept as they sketch the causes and effects that are possible and what to scream provided the input (the happening circumstance) is given. In most circumstances, it is easy to analyze whether operable situations are normal and satisfactory with the help of proven time tested theories.2.13. Marketing dividerThe market is split up into diverse segments ground on their needs, tastes, income, and a lot of other criteria. Marketing variance is based on a lot of research and important factors to suit the requirements and purposes. Some of the marketing segmentation is as follows2.13.1. Geographic SegmentationThis involves segmenting the market by perspective on the assumption that people living in one location will have similar needs, wants and preferences and these will differ significantly from people living in other locations. There are some obvious limits to this assumption. People all over the world drink Coca-cola and buy Japanese electronic goods for instance. When you think about it from the viewpoint of the consumer, most buying behaviour is actually local. Localized consumer behaviour is often expressed through the presence of a significantly large cultural or sub cultural group that is different from the main stream. There are also geographically based differences between consumers for reasons that are more complex or obscure. It is not immediately obvious why some sections of consumers have different behaviour than the other sections. But knowing that, they will do it can be important to the marketing strategy.2.13.2. Demographic segmentationDemographic segmentation deals with the many ways if statistically categorizing all the people in a theme population. For example, a national population can be divided into subgroups based on age, sex, income, education, occupation, social class, family size, race and religion. In a sense, there are also different ways of looking at the same individual consumer, because of course we belong to each of these groups. Different aspects of our identity will be relevant to different products at different times. Baby foods can only be marketed to parents of young children, for example and a nerve centre-class, position aged, nitty-gritty income, middle manager is more likely to be in the market for an physical exertion bike than a motor bike. Some of the important specifics of demographic segmentation areAgeAge is perhaps the most frequently used demographic variable in marketing segmentation. One reason for this is that the lifecycle has been divided up by society into what seem to be easily perceptible groups that are clearly differentiated from one another- infants, children, teenagers, young adults food.SexDividing the market into male and female segments is another frequently used strategy. But even here, the old marketing certainties are breaking down. It used to be a safe bet for marketers to target do-it-yourself products exclusively at men and supermarket shopping at women. But with the larger increase in exclusive occupant hose-holds and one parent families (most of them female), many more women are buying things that men would do if they were in a family. In addition, more women than men buy for other consumers.Socio-economic statusA persons socio economic status is inflexible by education, income and occupation. Though there are many exceptions of course, these are tether factors often in alignment. More highly educated people tend to do managerial and professional jobs that bring a relatively high income, and vice-versa. For obvious reasons most marketers are more interested in people with high socio economic status rather than low. Income is often considered the most important variable in this case because it is so easy to quantify and because it dictates entry to certain markets. But income by itself can be very misleading.psychological segmentationThe attempt to come up with a practical form of consumer profile has concentrated on three areas of behaviour activities, interests, and credits.Segmentation by usageThis form of segmentation is based on information about volume and frequency o f purchase for a given product. It is a popular way of segmentation of markets because there is a lot of readily available information about patterns of usage for most goods and services. In fact, with so many transactions now electronically recorded, a great deal more of data is available than is actually used. Perhaps the most familiar usage data is provided by the electronic point of sale (EPOS) used by supermarket checkouts. Not only are all the purchased items listed, together with their prices, but so is the date and exact time of purchase and the method of payment used.Segmentation by benefitThis form of market segmentation is based on knowledge of the benefits that consumers seek from that particular product. The task of the marketer is to include the capture characteristics- or the impression of them in the design of particular goods or services. In a sense this kind of segmentation is at the entire marketing concept find out what people want and provide it for them. (Da vid a Statt)Segmentation is very important for a firm or an industry to market its products strategically and for it to be a success. In the case of organic food, it comes under the category of food which is a basic necessity and therefore would appeal to and include a lot many segments in the markets. In this research study we are considering only the United Kingdom and India. So geographically these two countries are covered. Demographically the middle aged and the older people will be targeted age wise, both sexes, and the middle class and upper class levels will be targeted according to the socio economic status segmentation. Since the middle aged and older people usually are the ones who go shopping for food, they are targeted age wise, both men and women shop for it, and when it comes to socio economic status, the middle and the upper income groups are targeted as organic food are more expensive than conventional food. Many shoppers especially in India will give up the idea of buying food when it comes to the price factor that is not acceptable for them. That is the reason why the middle and upper income groups are aimed at here. Most people both in India and United Kingdom consume food every day. In India, no meal is complete without fruits or vegetables and in the United Kingdom, people are encouraged to consume food everyday with the healthy 5 a day concept though it is already a staple portion of a healthy meal. These segments are most suitable for being aimed at for marketing of organic food and therefore they are the target segments.2.14. end making processDecision makingcan be regarded as an outcome of mental processes leading to the selection of a course of action among several alternatives. Every decision making process produces a finalchoice.The output can be an action or an opinion of choice. There are many factors which are discussed below2.14.1 Communication detailThe situation in which the consumer receives information about a product or service influences the buying decision of the consumer. For example, in the case of organic food, an advertisement speaking about the bad impacts of the chemicals used in conventional foods right when the buyer is suffering from food poisoning might influence the consumer to buy food that is healthier and does not involve the usage of chemicals responsible for food poisoning and therefore influence the consumer to go in for purchase of organic food in future.2.14.2. Purchase SituationThe sit

History of Iron Smelting Technology in Sub-Saharan Africa

History of crusade Smelting Technology in Sub-Saharan AfricaIntroductionThe arrival of exhort smelting technology in sub-Saharan Africa played a significant role in shaping the diachronic record of the area by bringing profound changes to the lives and societies of its inhabitants (Haaland Shinnie 7). In the part of Africa south of the Sahara and south of the Ethiopian highlands, in that respect has been no archeological exhibit supporting a Bronze Age (Van Der Merwe 463 Alpern Holl 6) and the evidence archaeologists do stimulate point to press out being the premier metallic element used to supplant st angiotensin converting enzyme tools (Fagan 1). One area of intense debate regarding the African Iron Age is the process in which the technology of weight-lift smelting arrived in sub-Saharan Africa. Over the past half-century, the interpretations and reconstructions of the origins of iron smelting in sub-Saharan Africa fork out changed considerably. The sign theory was b ased on an unquestioned belief of the superiority of quaint Egypt over sub-Saharan Africa (Kense 12). Based on this framework, the site of Meroe was proposed by Arkell as an important link and the general belief was that the collapse of the Kingdom of Kush precipitated the hand out of technology and Meroitic kitchen-gardening into the southwest (Kense 13). However excavations conducted in the 1960s find that the iron smelting furnaces found at Meroe mostly dated to the first fewer centuries B.C.E (Shinnie 30) and its pivotal role in the spread of iron smelting technology was shown to be increasingly hard to defend (Kense 13). Three theories regarding the origins of iron smelting in sub-Saharan Africa have emerged and are currently disputed amongst scholars (Holl 7).deuce of the theories are diffusionist marrow these theories claim the technology originated elsewhere and was transported into the parting. These theories are based on the introduce that iron smelting originated some(prenominal)where in Anatolia and from there the technology was adopted by other populations and spread throughout the Mediterranean and into Africa. The main diffusionist theory was first proposed by Raymond Muany in 1952. He argues that since the Phoenicians had iron by about 1100 B.C. and that they started colonizing Union Africa at around the same time it was possible that the experience of iron smelting was transmissible into sub-Saharan Africa with the Berber tribes funding in the Saharan Desert as a medium (Alpern 46). The other diffusionist assumption arose as a sound reflection to early iron smelting furnaces found west of Lake Victoria in Tanzania. This hypothesis proposes that the technology came from Arabia via the Horn of Africa (Alpern 80).The theory that has gained the most acceptance recently is the one arguing for the autonomous invention of iron smelting in sub-Saharan Africa (Alpern 41). A slew of archaeological discoveries in the past twenty years hav e strengthened the part for independent invention. Some people have so far gone as far as arguing that, based on controversial discoveries made in 2008, inhabitants of sub-Saharan Africa were the first to smelt iron, preceding Anatolia by about 700 years (Pringle ). The strongest case against independent invention is the complexness of iron smelting. Iron requires specialized knowledge in order to veer iron ore into usable iron (Kense 19) and it has long been held that people without prior knowledge of smelting techniques would non be able to smelt iron successfully (Sassoon 5). Two areas of sub-Saharan Africa have emerged as candidates for areas where iron smelting could have developed, the Western Africa region around the Niger-Nigeria border or north-western Tanzania. This essay will argue for the independent discovery of iron smelting technology in sub-Saharan Africa based on discoveries made in Western Africa.BackgroundTo understand why there has been such a strong opposit ion to the idea of sub-Saharan Africa singly inventing iron smelting technology, it is necessary to consider the difficulty and skill required to smelt iron. It is hypothesized that iron was first used as a flux, a nerve centre that is smelted together with the desired ore in order to make the convert, or licentiousness rock, more liquid, in the smelting of sloven (Wheeler Madden 114). The iron mixed with slag would have been spongy at the temperatures inside a copper color smelting furnace. It could plainly then be shaped into something usable through repeated dog pound and heating (Wheeler Madden 114). The difficulty in creating iron objects is testament in the value iron objects had during the early and mid Bronze Age. In Egypt, for example, Tutankhamen was engrossed in with a golden dagger and a matching iron dagger with a gold hilt (van der Merwe 466). So although antediluvian patriarch smiths, masters of smelting bronze and copper, knew about iron, the difficulties i n smelting the metal took a long time to overcome. The smelting of iron occurs when iron ore is heated together with a charcoal fuel. This causes the iron in the ore to fuse chemically with the carbon from the charcoal. The more carbon dissolved in the iron, the lower its melting point. The amount of ore to fuel, and the supply of combustion air regularize whether cast iron, steel, wrought iron, or a useless lump of metal will form (Alpern 82). Copper on the other hand melts right away at 1084, temperatures that can be reached in a charcoal blaze or during ceramic firing (Holl 6). In sum, the reduction of iron ore requires oftentimes more sophisticated expertise than does the smelting of other metal ores. Without pre-existing furnace technology, the likeliness of stumbling upon the process required is slim (Sassoon 5).Due to these foundations and a lack of archaeological evidence supporting very early iron smelting in sub-Saharan Africa at the time, Mauny proposed the most plau sible scenario for the diffusion of iron metallurgy (Alpern 45). He speculated that when the Phoenicians colonized in North Africa, the Berbers living in the region, being from a erratic warrior culture, would have been keen to acquire improved weapons made from iron metal. These Berbers living near the coast would then pass on this technology to their curse word Berbers living in the Sahara (Kense 24). He then suggested that the technology could have been interpreted south into the sub-Saharan savannah by fleeing slaves, or deliberately transmitted to the lands of black farmers where both iron ore and the wood to fuel smelting furnaces were relatively abundant. The farmers would in turn supply the Berbers with raw metal for ironworking in exchange (Alpern 46).Mauny offered some linguistic evidence for his model. Derivatives of the Phoenician word for iron, barzel, are found in Berber vocabularies throughout the Sahara and overly in the Teda (Tubu) language of Tibesti and the Fez zan.20 Mauny also saw affiliations with the toll for iron among several savanna-dwelling black peoples, including the Bariba, Jukun, and Kanuri.21 He powerfulness have added that treacherous influence on the Berbers whitethorn be attested to this day by the Tifinagh alphabet of the Tuareg, which is thought by some scholars to derive ultimately from a Punic script.There is a strong case that Africa severally invented ceramics, tho there does seem to be evidence for Berber transfer of metallurgy across the Sahara, but it comes non from Niger but from Mauritania in the far west. Ancient copper artifacts began to be noticed in that region in the early twentieth century. By 1951 enough had been found for Mauny to wonder, in print, whether Mauritania had experienced a Copper Age.70 An come came in 1968, when French archeologist Nicole Lambert began excavating what was known as the Grotte aux Chauves-souris (Bat subvert) on a hill called the Guelb Moghrein near Akjoujt in western Ma uritania. It was not a cave at all, but an ancient exploit gallery delve by humans following a rich vein of malachite ore. The ore was not only extracted, but locally smelted, as furnace remains and slag attest. four other ancient exploitation sites were found later on the Guelb Moghrein. Ra-diocarbon go outs, at last calibrated, are nearly all in the range 800 to 200 cal BCE. later at least three other metallurgical centers from the same consequence were discovered in the Akjoujt region. The number of ancient copper objects found in the western Sahara and attributed to the Akjoujt industry exceeded 160 at last count. The great majority are weapons arrowheads, lance points, and daggers. Tools include hatchets, pins, awls, burins, and hooks. There are the inevitable face-to-face ornaments-rings, earrings, pendants-and some ingots. All the items are very small and very clean-cut when the number reached about 140, the total weight barely topped deuce kilograms. They were prod uced in a Neolithic context in which stone tools immensely outnumbered the metal ones, so one can hardly speak of a Copper Age on the basis of present evidence. How did copper mining and working get started at Akjoujt? It is possible the industry was indigenous, but no one yet seems to have made a real case for that. Lambert saw a resemblance between the Akjoujt products and those of the El Argar culture in southeastern Spain, where copper was being manufactured by at least 1700 BCE and bronze some 200 years later. She thought the few ancient brass and bronze artifacts also found in Mauritania cleverness have been imported from the western Maghreb. She noted that chariot engravings had been found on rocks in three places near Akjoujt and thought they might be pathway signs indicating an early traffic between Morocco and Mauritania.71 Mauny discerned Phoenician or Carthaginian initiatives piece of ass the Akjoujt industry, with Berbers actually importing the technology, but Lamber ts idea of an Iberian connection might have some merit.72 In the late 1960s and early 1970s, British archeologist Colin Renfrew, in a sweeping challenge to the then-reigning diffusionist orthodoxy, suggested that copper metallurgy was independently invented on the Iberian Peninsula long beforehand Phoenicians or Greeks reached the western Mediterranean. 73 Since then much evidence has accumulated that he was right, and that Iberian copper metallurgy dates back at least to 3000 BCE.74 It also seems that the technology crossed from Spain to Morocco before the Phoenicians set foot on the Moroccan coast. Until the mid-twentieth century, it was thought the western Maghreb had not experienced a Copper or Bronze Age. Finds of metal objects, ancient mines, and, especially, rock engravings have undercut that notion copper in Morocco may date all the way back to the third millennium BCE, concord to some leading researchers.75 Rock art in the High atlas shows weapons typical of the El Argar culture, especially daggers, halberds, and axes.76 Conceivably, cuprous objects reached Morocco in exchange for ii North African products, ivory and ostrich eggshells, that have been found in third- and second- millennium-BCE graves in southeast Spain.77 But no certain demonstration of early copper smelting has yet turned up in the Maghreb.Did the Akjoujt copper industry, whatever its origins, lead to an independent invention of iron metallurgy? The malachite of Bat Cave occurred in a matrix of hematite and magnetite that was discarded in the smelting process. There is no evidence that the coppersmiths ever produced iron, although the raw material was at hand. However, proof of ironworking from the same period has recently been found some 250 miles south of Akjoujt in the middle Senegal river valley. At a site called Walalde, iron artifacts dating to somewhere between 800 and 550 cal BCE have been found, and in a second signifier of occupation, from ca. 550 to 200 cal BCE, clear evidence of iron smelting has been excavated. The latter phase also yielded three copper artifacts with a telltale chemical signature of the Akjoujt ores-more than 1% of arsenic and a smaller amount of nickel. Further excavation and register are required to evaluate the find, but it is clearly an important section to the history of metallurgy in sub-Saharan Africa.

Environmental Protection In India

environmental Protection In IndiaOver the old age, together with a spreading of environmental consciousness, at that place has been a change in the convention on the wholey-held perception that at that place is a stack-off between environmental quality and economic growth as lot swallow come to believe that the two ar inescapably complementary. The current focus on environment is non vernal-environmental considerations corroborate been an constitutive(a) part of the Indian culture. The desire for conservation and sustainable ingestion of in persistent choices has been expressed in Indian scriptures, more than than three thousand years old and is reflected in the constitutional, legislative and constitution framework as excessively in the inter topic commitments of the country.Section 1 Legislations for environmental security system in India, Section 2 Indigenous Peoples, Section 3 Indigenous Peoples and scientific LegislationsLegislations for environmental resi stance in IndiaEven before Indias independence in 1947, some(prenominal) environmental legislation existed but the satisfying impetus for bring most a well-developed framework came only after the UN Conference on the Human Environment (Stockholm, 1972). Under the influence of this declaration, the interior(a) Council for Environmental policy and Planning within the Department of Science and Technology was set up in 1972. This Council later evolved into a full-fledged Ministry of Environment and wood get downs (MoEF) in 1985 which at once is the apex administrative body in the country for regulating and ensuring environmental surety. After the Stockholm Conference, in 1976, constitutional sanction was given to environmental concerns through the 42nd Amendment, which incorporated them into the Directive Principles of realm Policy and constitutional Rights and Duties.Since the 1970s an extensive network of environmental legislation has grown in the country. The MoEF and the p ollution halt boards (CPCB i.e. Central Pollution Control Board and SPCBs i.e. State Pollution Control Boards) together form the regulatory and administrative amount of the sector.A policy framework has also been developed to complement the legislative provisions. The Policy Statement for Abatement of Pollution and the depicted object Conservation strategy and Policy Statement on Environment and Development were brought out by the MoEF in 1992, to develop and promote initiatives for the protection and cash advance of the environment. The EAP (Environmental dression Programme) was formulate in 1993 with the objective of improving environmental services and integrating environmental considerations in to development create by mental acts.Other measures have also been shell outn by the organisation to protect and preserve the environment. Several sector-specific policies have evolved, which be discussed at length in the concerned chapters.This chapter attempts to highlightin g only legislative initiatives towards the protection of the environment. qualitys and dodderylifeThe Wildlife (Protection) flake, 1972, Amendment 1991The WPA (Wildlife Protection Act), 1972, provides for protection to listed species of flora and fauna and establishes a network of ecologically- beta saved beas. The WPA empowers the central and bring up governments to decl ar whatever ara a wildernesslife sanctuary, national park or closed area. at that place is a blanket discharge on carrying out any industrial activity inside these saved areas. It provides for authorities to administer and implement the Act regulate the hunting of wild living creatures protect specified plants, sanctuaries, national parks and closed areas restrict trade or commerce in wild animals or animal articles and motley matters. The Act prohibits hunting of animals except with permission of authorized officer when an animal has become dangerous to human life or property or so disabled or diseased as to be beyond recovery (WWF-India, 1999). The near-total prohibition on hunting was made more in force(p) by the Amendment Act of 1991.The Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980This Act was adopted to protect and keep timberlands. The Act restricts the powers of the state in honour of de-reservation of woodwind instruments and use of woodwindland for non- quality purports (the term non- timber purpose includes clearing any woodlandland for cultivation of cash crops, plantation crops, horticulture or any purpose other than re-afforestation). Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 (EPA)This Act is an umbrella legislation intentional to provide a framework for the co-ordination of central and state authorities established under the Water (Prevention and Control) Act, 1974 and Air (Prevention and Control) Act, 1981. Under this Act, the central government is appoint to take measures necessary to protect and improve the quality of the environment by setting standards for sparks and disc harges regulating the location of industries direction of hazardous wastes, and protection of macrocosm health and welfare.From time to time the central government issues notifications under the EPA for the protection of ecologically-sensitive areas or issues guidelines for matters under the EPA.The Environment (Protection) Rules, 1986These rules lay down the procedures for setting standards of emission or discharge of environmental pollutants. The Rules prescribe the parameters for the Central Government, under which it house issue orders of prohibition and restrictions on the location and operation of industries in contrasting areas. The Rules lay down the procedure for taking samples, serving notice, submitting samples for analysis and testing ground reports. The work ons of the laboratories are also described under the Rules along with the qualifications of the concerned analysts.The National Environment Appellate Authority Act, 1997This Act provided for the establishment of a National Environment Appellate Authority to hear appeals with respect to restriction of areas in which any industry operation or process or grad of industries, operations or processes could not carry out or would be allowed to carry out subject to certain safeguards under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986. multinational agreements on environmental issuesIndia has signed several multilateral environment agreements (MEA) and conventions, much(prenominal)(prenominal) asConvention on International Trade in imperil Species of wild fauna and flora (CITES), 1973, to regulate and inhibit global mercenary trade of endangered species or derivative products. Its aims to counter the economic incentives of poach endangered species and destroying their habitat by closing off the international market. India became a party to the CITES in 1976. International trade in all wild flora and fauna in general and species covered under CITES is adjust jointly through the provisions of The Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972, the Import/Export policy of Government of India and the Customs Act 1962 (Bajaj, 1996).Convention on Biological Diversity, 1992 is a legally binding treaty. It deals with conservation of biodiversity, sustainable use of biological resources and sincere sharing of benefits arising from their sustainable use. It addresses several concerns such as including habitat preservation, smart property rights, and endemical communitys rights.Indias initiatives under the Convention include the promulgation of the Wildlife (Protection) Act of 1972, amended in 1991 and enfolding in several international conventions such as CITES.An assessment of the legal and regulatory framework for environmental protection in IndiaThe extent of the environmental legislation network is evident from the higher up discussion but the enforcement of the laws has been a matter of concern. One normally cited causality is the prevailing command and control nature of the environment al regime. Coupled with this is the prevalence of the all-or-nothing approach of the law they do not consider the extent of violation. Fines are levied on a flat basis and in addition, there are no incentives to lower the discharges below prescribed levels.In 1995, the Ministry of Environment and Forest (MoEF) constituted a task force which fast(a)ly advocated the use of market-based instruments for the control of environmental pollution. Various economic incentives have been used to supplement the command-and-control policies. wear and tear allowances, exemptions from excise or customs duty payment, and arrangement of soft loans for the toleration of clean technologies are instances of such incentives. Another aspect that is evident is the prison-breaking in the focus from end-of-pipe treatment of pollution to treatment at source. The situation of remote sensing and geographical information systems in natural resource management and environmental protection has also gained im portance over time.An important recent development is the rise of judicial activism in the enforcement of environmental legislation. This is reflected in the growth of environment-related public litigation cases that have led the courts to take major steps such as ordering the shut-down of polluting factories.Agenda 21 highlights the need for integration of environmental concerns at all stages of policy, planning and decision-making processes including the use of an efficient legal and regulatory framework, economic instruments and other incentives. These very principles were fundamental to maneuver environmental protection in the country well before Rio and go away be reinforced, drawing on Indias own experiences and those of other countries.The Indigenous PeoplesIn India, the indigenous peoples are predominantly composed of the large and diverse tribal commonwealths scattered across several states. Anthropological literature suggests that the tribal fitting arose as a coloni al construct, in which all those living on the margins of mainstream agrarian society but within the structure of the Hindu coterie system were delineated as primitive and tribal. In Indian languages, there is no exact equivalent for the word tribal, but close synonyms are vanavasis (forest dwellers) or adivasi (original inhabitants). The 1891 Census Report arranged different castes according to their traditional occupations, and forest tribes were assigned a separate category from that of agricultural and artless castes. Thus, both etymologically as well as spatially, the lives and livelihoods of tribal communities in India are intrinsically linked with forests.It has been argued that the definition of indigenous peoples as original settlers is gnarly in the Indian context. Sociologists like Dube (1977) and Beteille (1998) have pointed out that tribal traditions themselves dedicate repeated mention of migration of their ancestors. There is considerable evidence to suggest that several groups were pushed out of the areas that they were first settled and had to seek shelter elsewhere. Today more than 50 million of tribal people live in and virtually forests. There is a clear overlap between the forest and the tribal maps of the country, as well as an overlap with poverty (Poffenberger and McGean 1996)At present, about 95% of the total forest area belongs to the government, and the tribal population of India has been divested of much of its legal communal rights. This is a major practical concern, because the rude economy of India is largely biomass-based. People are directly dependent on forests and common lands for a variety of non-commercial- calibre forest products for food and fuel, small timber for housing, and herbs and medicinal plants for meeting their subsistence livelihood needs. In the absence of alternative sources of livelihoods or an ability to eke out sustenance from marginal landholdings, there is a go on high level of dependence on fores ts for survival.The widely used state right of eminent domain allows the state to acquire private and common property for public purposes. The eminent domain right has remained supreme, overriding all other policies, laws, and regulations. It is under the right of eminent domain that the state acquires land to build infrastructure, mines, dams, and other projects. With an estimated $30 billion proposed as investment in mining-related projects in the next decade, communal land will continue to be a site of intense conflict between tribal people and the state.The encroachment of the state on forests and customary tenure rights of tribal forest-dwelling communities did not go unchallenged during the colonial and postcolonial periods. Undeterred by the provisions of the Indian Forest Act of 1927, many tribal groups have mounted a sustained challenge to the continued denial of their communal rights over forests.The exercising of the van panchayats (forest councils) demonstrates this poi nt. In fortitude to agitations, the colonial government gradually accepted the existence of some topical anaesthetic anaesthetic federation rights over forests and their resources, and these were incorporated in the Indian Forest Act of 1927. The act provides for constituting village forests to meet local anesthetic needs, and this led to the creation of forest councils in Uttar Pradesh through a new state law passed in 1931. All the de-reserved marginal reserved forests were reclassified into tell 1 forests and placed under the jurisdiction of the van panchayats, in which local tribal communities play a key role in forest administration. More than 4,000 van panchayats were created, although the area under their control did not scoop 8% of the total forest area of India. Nonetheless, they represent an example of a forest tenure system in which communal tenure is accept by law (Sarin 2003).Indigenous people and their communities represent a large percentage of global popul ation. They have developed over many generations, a holistic traditional scientific association of their lands, natural resources and environment In view of the interrelationship between the natural environment and its sustainable development and the cultural, favorable, economic and physical well-being of indigenous people, national and international efforts to implement environmentally sound and sustainable development should recognise, accommodate, promote and sanction the role of indigenous people and their communities.The above extract from Agenda 21 (UNCED, 1992), aptly captures the need for increased recognition of indigenous people and their knowledge of natural resource management and its use in sustainable development.integration of indigenous people and scientific forest managementIndigenous forest management activities may originate in specific areas in response to specific pressures, but this does not prevent them from adopting and transforming appropriate components of scientific forest management systems through interaction and shared experience. Indeed there is a need to promote equity of forest management systems between indigenous communities and formal forestry scientists around the world (Agarwal, 1995). This process of integrating two forest management systems is essential to achieving sustainable forest management. There is no fixed method of addressing the bottlenecks in integration of indigenous and scientific knowledge, instead the methods elect will vary according to what is appropriate and feasible within the institutional, ecological, and friendly environments in which they operate.The Indian Forest Policy of 1988 (MoEF, 1988) and the subsequent Government resolution on participatory forest management (MoEF, 1990) emphasise the need for peoples participation in forest management. The policy document asserts that local people should be actively involved in protection, conservation and management of forests. Hence the policy envis ages a process of joint management of forests by the state government (professional foresters) and the local people. So far, out of 25 state governments, 23 states have adopted Joint Forest Management (JFM). As on the first January 2000, 10.24 million ha of forestlands were managed under the JFM programme through 36 075 forest protection committees (MoEF, 2000).Evidence of long standing local forest management practices can be found in various parts of India curiously in eastern and north-eastern regions. Despite increasing pressures with the increased population, regulations regarding resource use and harvest assist in managing forests in a sustainable way.As the JFM programme has evolved, there are clear indications that the programme has had considerable jolt on local ecology, economics, and the people (Yadav et al., 1997). Initially the relationship between the local people and forest department was strained and lacked trust. Regular interaction and participatory learning and planning activities has facilitated an open dialogue and removed mutual apprehension between officials of forest department and local people. Viewed in the light of the adjustive learning model, it was found that exchange and interaction of scientific and indigenous aspects of forest management within the context of JFM have resulted in ecological improvement and increase in average household income after four-five years of strong JFM activities.ETFRN Publication SeriesLocal people as well as foresters identify with the JFM programme. They take pride in being part of the programme and are recognising its benefits. Based on the successful experience of JFM, irrigation, health, and agriculture sectors are also now placing an emphasis on integration of indigenous and scientific knowledge through peoples participation in resource management.However real integration of scientific and indigenous management systems is still rarely achieved, and in presenting the model I aim to make more explicit the opportunities for doing so, and highlight ways forward for the continuous process of adaptive learning.ConclusionThere is a need to strengthen indigenous community institutions to allow them to function effectively and interact with outside actors. Appropriate policy reforms are need to include these institutions in government programs and schemes, and provide support for capacity construction to enable them to function in a democratic and transparent manner, ensuring social and gender equity. It is necessary to identify common parameters among different indigenous community institutions and develop guiding principles, processes, and mechanisms that allow better interface between the institutions, local government, and technical agencies.To encourage sustainably productive forest management by communities, there is a need to eliminate harvesting and transport permit requirements where practical and create free forest trade zones for community enterprises in alpine ar eas of the Northeast. Community networks should be established or strengthened to self-monitor environmental impacts of small-scale forestry enterprises.As a result of carrying colonial baggage, the Indian Forest Act and the environmental law in general still caters to the British policies with respect to Indian forests . This law is ideal tool for furthering the cause of revenue generation.Conservation and involving the people in the management of forests were not the British approach. Newer legislations such as the Forest (Conservation) Act, Wildlife Protoection Act, The Biological Diversity Act, and most recently the Scheduled Tribes Bill have made attempts to bridge this gap, with ample support from the Courts. It is time though to take up all the laws and combine them to come up with a composite plant and comprehensive Environmental Law that reflects the change in approach towards the environment and the indigenous people who live most integrated with it.